Chemical Process

Freon is a trademark of E.I. du Pont for a series of chlorinated and fluorinated hydrocartoons. The parent hydrocarbons are methane, CH 4 , and ethane C 2 H 6 ; a few Freons contain a bromine atom. Freon often use as AC refrigerant but this chemicals have been forbiden to use because it can depletion the ozone layer on the atmosphere. Freon is the synthetic refrigerant that can be build from several compostion of chemicals, several kind of freon as folows: Chloro Fluoro Carbon, known as CFC Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbon, known as HCFC Hydro Fluoro Carbon, known as HFC The freons are chemically stable, nontoxic, and non flammable. Other useful properties are high density, low boiling point, and low viscosity. These characteristics make the freons especially suited for use as refrigerants. They have also been used as propellants in aerosol cans, as solvents, and to expand polyurethane insulating foams. Freons are fluorocarbons, the substances that have been implicated in the depletion o

If you work on laboratory you will familiar with glassware apparatus  that usually use as many tools in laboratory. Most of glassware that use for chemicals fluid have a size with volume indicator, even not all this glass apparatus will use for measure liquid volume. The different of this measuring ruler is the thoroughness. Glass use for volume measure will have more accuracy compare with glass that is not use to measure the volume.  The glass with smaller inlet section called as Erlenmeyer, this glass is not purposes to measure the liquid volume even though there is a measurement indicator on the glass wall. The chemical glass with the same inlet section with the bottom called as Chemical Glass, this glass is not use for volume measurement but just keep or storage the chemical inside with the volume prediction. The highest glass on the picture above called as measuring cylinder, this glass is used for volume measurement. Measuring cylinder is just use to measure the volume of fl

A terpene is a naturally occuring organic compound with the general formula (C 5 H 8 ) n . Until recently this definition was used rather strictly. The term terpenoid , refering to related compounds containing oxygen, has fallen into disuse, and both classes are now known as terpenes. The terpene share a common general formula and often have structures related to the diene isoprene: (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) = isoprene, CH 2 C=CH 3 CH=CH 2 . The number of isoprene units serves as the most common classification system for the large number of known terpenes. The German chemist Otto Wallach received the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1910 for his extensive studies of terpene chemistry. Many terpenes are commercially valuable. For example, the monoterpenes and ssquiterpenes are major comstituents of many essential oils prized as perfumes and flavors. There are important relationship between the higher terpenes and steroids, carotenoids and vitamins. The carotenoids β-carotine (a tetrape

Hazardous materials are substances which can endanger or damage in certain concentrations (amounts) people, animals, environment and real values. These materials can be existent firmly, liquidly, gaseous or also in the form of radiation. Appearance of hazardous materials Different transport ways (streets, rails, water, air) Storage, manufacturing, processing in buildings and mills During fires as a result of the combustion (pyrolyse products) Hospitals, indoor swimming pools, collecting points of problematic goods Agriculture Chemical materials Caustic materials Develop a direct irritation and caustic impact on eyes, skin and tissues of humans and animals. Acids and bases (heavy caustic materials) Cause corrosions of the eyes, the skin and the respiratory system as well as destroy clothes and equipment. Materials which are harmful to the environment Damage depending on their character and effect plants, soil, ground water and bodies of water. Poisonous materials

Lithium is a chemical element of the Alkali Metals. Group IA in the periodic table. Its chemical symbol is Li, its atomic number is 3, and its atomic weight is 6.941, the lowest weight of all metals. Soft and silvery white, lithium quickly becomes covered with a gray oxidation layer when exposed to air. In nature, lithium is always found in bonded form. Lithium is found in the minerals spodumene, LiAlSiO 2 , petalite, LiAlSi 4 O 10 , and eucryptite, LiAlSiO 4 . Lithium metal is prepared by electroysis of molten lithium were estimated at more than 10 million metric tons. Although a highly reactive element, lithium is less active than the other alkali metals. Like the others, it easily yield an electron, forming monovalent positive ions. Lithium reacts with water to form lithium hydroxide. LiOH, which is used as a carbon dioxide bonding agent in the ventilating systems of submarines and spaceships. Other important lithium borate, Li 2 B 4 O 2 , which are used in the ceramic industr

It is also some unusual happened that your potato skin can turn to green. The green part on potato skin indicate the presence of toxin. Better you cut out the green part before you peel your potatoes. The green part of the potato actually just chlorophyll, but this chlorophyll indicates that potato has exposed to light where the natural toxin in the potato (solanine) concentrated at harmful levels. So this make we prohibit to store potato on the room temperature, always keep them in a cool and don’t sun light exposure. Solanine is a natural defense mechanism of the potato to ward off fungus and pests. Solanine substance also make the potato bruished and spoil. If you have potatoes with this indication better to discharge them all. According to some reference solanine can be lowered the toxin if heat on the 306 o F or 150  o C, but heat at 212 o F or at water boiling temperature has no effect, so if you treat the tomato like this better cut it out the green part.

The gas is produced by the chemical reaction between calcium carbide and water: CaC 2  + 2H2O → C 2 H 2  + Ca(OH) 2  + heat Acetylene (C 2 H 2 ) possesses the advantage of a higher combustion velocity, higher flame capacity and higher flame temperature over other fuel gasses (propane, hydrogen natural gas). A gas with a higher combustion velocity produces a shorter flame. The flame capacity is the heat quantity in kJ (kiloJoule), which is supplied to every square centimeter of the workpiece surface per second. Acetylene oxygen are suited together in the mixing tube of the torch. The mixture ignites at 335 o C and yields. Acetylene + oxygen → 4 CO 2  + 2 H 2 O + heat One cubic meter of acetylene gas produce up to 57,000 kJ of heat. This thermal energy heats the material to the melting point and fuses it. Acetylene Cylinders are made of seemless drawn steel tubes. Even at 2 bar overpressure, acetylene tends to explode, a decomposition process which produce heat (C 2 H 2  → 2 C

The chemical element potassium is a soft,light,silver white metal. it is one of the ALKALI METALS of Group la of the  periodic table. its chemical symbol is K {from kalium, the Latinized version of the Arabic word for "alkali"}, its atomic number is 19,and its atomic weight is 39.098. potash, or potassium carbonate {K 2 CO 3 } was well known and had important industrial uses in glass manufacture well before 1700; it was often mistaken, however, for sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) and only their decidedly different sources prevented total confusion. Sodium carbonate (soda) is most often found as a mineral, potash was originally derived from the ashes of vegetables materials. Even before the discovery and differentiation of potassium and sodium, potash and sodium carbonate could be identified by their crystal structures like quartz. On Oct. 6, 1807, Sir Humphry Davy connected a piece of solid potash to the poles of battery and causes the release of a new metal at the negative po

Quartz , which is the most abundant silica mineral and which occurs in most igneous and practically all metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, is nearly pure silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ). It was also been found in some lunar rocks and meteorites. The name of quartz is believed originated in the early 1500s from the Saxon word querklufterz (cross vein ore), which was corrupted to queretz and then to quartz. Quartz was well known to the ancient, who called it crystal or rock crystal. Quartz is colorless and transparent when pure. Its hardness is 7 on the Mohs scale, and its specific gravity is 2.651. Quartz has no cleavage and fails by brittle fracture, the fracture surfaces have vitreous luster. Quartz is diamagnetic but does not conduct electricity. Piezoelectricity makes quartz valuable in pressure gauges, electronic frequency control devices, and radio equipment. Crystallography Quartz occurs in a wide range of crystal sizes, from single crystal weighing many tons to cryptocrytalline va

The form radiation refer both to the transmission of energy in the form of wave, and to the transmission of streams of atomic particles through space. Any energy that transmitted in the form of waves is some kind of electromagnetic radiation. Each kind is distinguished by its wavelength, or frequency. All kind of electromagnetic radiation obey the same physical laws, they all travel at the speed of light, and when they fall on a surface they exert a pressure proportional to the net flux of energy divided by the speed of light. Roughly in the order of decreasing are radio waves, radiant heat energy and microwaves, infrared radiation, light, ultraviolet radiation, X ray, and games rays. Many form of particulate radiation are possible, in the phenomenon of radioactivity, alpha radiation (helium nuclei) and beta radiation (electrons) are observed, along with gamma rays. Very energetic particles from outer space are called cosmic rays. Any particulate or electromagnetic radiation that ca

Formalin has other name alias formaldehyde, have chemical formula of HCHO. Formaldehyde is the simplest member of the class of organic compounds known as Aldehyde. At room temperature formaldehyde is an extremely reactive colorless gas with a suffocating odor. It is commonly solid as an aqueous solution called as formalin or in solid polymeric forms called as paraformaldehyde and trioxane. Formaldehyde often used as preservative agent, people often use on food that actually have poison properties and carcinogenic. Formalin is used in manufacture of dyes, in the production of synthetic resins, and as a preservative agent for biological specimens. In India formalin many use to sterilize media on cultivation mushroom. Before they spread the spawn into the media they sterilize the cultivation media using small amount of formalin that is diluted into the water. Media then dipped on this solution and then let it dry before spread the spawn. In Indonesia to buy formalin from shop is diffic

Nitroglycerin is a pale yellow oil, highly unstable and toxic, first made in 1846 by the Italian chemist Ascario Sobrero. Alfred Nobel's is the first scientist who attempt in 1863 to use as explosive power were unsuccessful because the extremely unstable nature of substance preclude its safe transport, storage, and employment. In 1864 then Nobel produced solid preparations by mixing nitroglycerin with porous substances such as kieselguhr, thus allowing the explosive to be employed as safe, stable, blasting agent, namely dynamite. In medicine, nitroglycerin is used as a vasodilator to reduce arterial tension, especially for the treatment of heart diseases such as angina pectoral. The basic pharmacological action of nitroglycerin is the nonspecific relaxation of all smooth muscle. A throbbing headache, experienced by dynamite factory worker, is the most characteristic symptom of nitroglycerin toxicity. After sometime, immunity to the poison develops; immunity is rapidity lost, how

Sodium sulfide is an organic chemical that has attained an important position in the organic industry. It is consumed as a reducing agent in the manufacture of amino compounds, and it enters into the preparation of many dyes. It is also employed extensively in the leather industry as a depilatory. Sodium polysulfide is one of the important are the rayon, metallurgical, photographic, and engraving fields. This product usually is a side product of other industry. This chemical may be obtained as 30% crystals of sodium sulphide or as 62% flakes. Solutions of it may be shipped in steel. One disadvantageous property of sodium sulphide is its deliquence. It crystallizes wit nine molecules of water, Na 2 S.9H 2 O. The oldest method of production is the reduction of sodium sulphate with powdered coal in a reverberatory furnace. Another similar process is the reduction of barite in the same manner, leaching and double decomposition with soda ash. For the reaction involving the reduction of s

An explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter, called black powder , was known to the Chinese centuries ago, its use in propelling missile was demonstrated shortly after 1300. the discoveries of nitro-glycerine and nitrocellulose shortly before 1850 and the invention of dynamites and the mercury fulminate blasting cap soon after, were epochal events of the high explosives era. Smokeless powder was first made in 1867. The demand for more powerful and uniform propellants for the space program offered a recent, new challenge. In times of war, increased quantities are required; for example, roughly 3 x 103 kg was manufactured in the United States between January 1840 and V-J day. Industrial and commercial use is very substantial 1.6 x 109 kg/year in 1982. Although a great many compounds and mixtures are explosive, comparatively, few of them are suitable for explosive use because of the critical restrictions on ability, safety, and price. Most explosive compounds are too expensive

Sodium Hydrosulphide Sodium Hydrosulphide (NaHS) finds use in ore flotation (30 percent), dyestuff processing (20 percent), as a leather depilatory (20 percent), the manufacture or rayon and organic chemicals (10 percent) and in the metallurgical industry. These were five merchant producers who operated six plants in 1981. Total demand was about 18,000 t/year. Wow very big amount. Sodium Thiosulfate Sodium Thiosulfate crystallizes in large, transparent, extremely soluble prisms with five molecules of water. It is a mild reducing agent, like sodium sulfite. It is employed as an antichlor following the bleaching of cellulose products and as a source of sulphur dioxide in the bleaching of wool, oil, and ivory. In photography, which accounts for 90 percent of current use, it is used to dissolve unaltered silver halogen compounds from negatives and prints, where it is commonly called “hypo”. It is a preservative against fermentation in dyeing and serves in the preparation of mordants.

Insect have more species (over one million already described) than any other form of animal life and are in many ways the most indestructible form. About 1 percent of the species offer hazard to human and animals. Human and pests fight a continuous battle for food and shelter. Insects alone claim about 10 % of our crops in US, and about 14 percent in worldwide, various misery causing diseases are carried by insect malaria, yellow fever, typhus, and plague to name a few. For us to survive at current population levels, pesticides must be used and new ones constantly developed. When insecticide applied widely, all but a few of the local insects are destroyed, but the remaining ones are those most resistant to the destroying agent. After destroying generation, this selection makes the surviving insects increasingly resistant to the destroying agent. Eventually, complete resistance may occur. This phenomenon is seen with medical product, and all types of pesticides. In an effort to retard

Sodium Sulfite Sodium sulfite is a compound that is very easily oxidized. For this reason, it is employed in many cases where a gentle reducing agent is desired, e.g. to bleach wool and silk, as an antichlor after the bleaching of yarns, textile and paper, as a preservative for foodstuffs, and to prevent raw sugar solution from colouring upon evaporation. It is very widely used in the preparation of photographic developer to prevent from oxidation from hydroquinone and other agents. It has a small application in the field of medicine as an antiseptic and as an antizymotic for internal use. About 60% of the total merchant market is in the paper Industries. While merchant capacity is about 145,000 t/year, the paper mills have twice capacity to captive use. The demand for boiler feed water treatment is about 15%. It is use to remove oxygen from water and thus help to prevent corrosion and scale formation. These were four major production in 1891, one of which provided 50% percent of the

Sodium bisulphate is commonly called as Niter Cake because it was formally obtained by the obsolete process of reacting nitrate, or niter, with sulphuric acid: NaNO 3 + H 2 SO 4 → NaHSO 4 + HNO 3 It may also be formed when salt is moderately heated with sulphuric acid: NaCl + H 2 SO 4   →  NaHSO 4 + HCl It is an easy handled dry material that react like sulphuric acid. Major uses are in the manufacture of acid type toilet bowl cleaners and for industrial cleaning and metal pickling. Minor uses are in dye baths, carbonizing wool and various chemical processes. Sodium Bisulphite Sodium bisulfite finds industrial use either in solution or as a solid. The total solid is of the anhydrous form, and the pure reagent has the formula NaHSO 3 . The commercial product consist almost entirely of Na 2 S 2 O 5 (sodium pyrosulfite), or sodium metabisulfite, which is the dehydrated derivative of two molecules of sodium bisulfite. The solution may be easily shipped, stored

The only major black pigments are the carbon blacks. These come in various shades and their manufacture is discussed specially under industrial carbon. Lampback, which has a larger particle size, is used for tinting to produce shades of gray. The carbon blacks are very opaque and have excellent durability, resistance to all type of chemical and light fastness. They should not be used in direct contact with iron and steel in primer coating because they stimulate metal corrosion. There are many kind of industrial carbon available: Lampblack Carbon black Activated Carbon Natural Graphite Industrial Diamond For pigment purposes, industry usually use lampblack as the base raw material. To dilute lampblack use organic dilution because lampblack can’t dilute in water.

The oldest and formerly most important of the white pigments is white lead, which is so longer permitted as a consistent of most points. Zinc oxide, another white pigment formerly widely used, is now of only minor importance. The kind of white pigments such as follows: Titanium Dioxide Zinc Oxide Lithophone Zinc sulphide Antimony oxide Lithophone Lithophone is a mixed zinc sulphide, barium sulphate pigment that contains about 30% zinc sulphide. The original light sensitiveness has been overcome by raw material purification and by addition of such agents as polythionates and cobalt sulphate. Lithophone is a brilliantly white, extremely fine, cheap, white pigment. It is particularly well adapted to interior coating. The manufacture of this substance, barium, zinc and lithopone circuits are represented by different types of lines. The barium sulphide solution is prepared by reducing barite are (BaSO 4 ) with carbon and leaching the resulting mass. The equation is: BaSO 4