Chemical Process

A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that exhibits the chemical properties of that substance. Molecules are groups of atoms held together by relatively strong forces called chemical bond. Each molecule of a given substance always contains the same number and kinds of atoms, and the number may range from one (Ne, for example) to many thousands (protein, for example). In a chemical reaction the chemical bonds are broken, and rearrangement of atoms takes place to form molecules of new compounds. The concept of molecule dates back to approximately 1800, when a great deal of effort was being directed toward the study of games and reactions of gases. The results of the experiments led Amadeo Avogadro to suggest that some gases consisted of groups of atoms or melecules. Molecules with the same number and kinds of atoms but different properties are called isomers. There are two general kinds; structural isomers and stereoisomers. Structural isomers are molecules that diff...

The striking similarities in solvent properties existent between ammonia and water suggest that certain substituted ammonias might also function as non-aqueous solvents for inorganic substances. On the basic of structural considerations alone, any such characteristics might be expected to be more pronounced with hydroxylamine hydrazine, and the lower acid amides than with the primary, secondary, and tertiary amines. Since hydroxylamine and hydrazine are strictly inorganic in nature, they should also be of more interest than the substituted ammonia containing organic radicals. Hydroxylamine, containing as it does both the amide and the hydroxyl radicals, should show solvent properties corresponding to those of both ammonia and water. Although data on the physical constants of these two compounds are incomplete, the values summarized. Early observation by Kohlschutter and Hofmann indicated rather striking resemblances between hydroxylamine and water in solvent character, salvation, amp...

Although the general behavior of metals in liquid ammonia has been treated in conjuction with the nature of the metallic state, a more comprehensive examinations of their characteristic appears warranted. Of many published summaries which describe such systems, those given by Johnson and Meyer and by Fernelius and Watt are perhaps the best for consultation because of their completeness and of their comprehensive coverage of the original literature. Of internet too are several less techical discussion. The alkali metals are readily soluble without appreciable thermal effects and without chemical reaction (in the absence of such catalysts as iron, iron (III) oxide, or platinum or of light of wavelength 2150 - 2550 A which favor amide formation) to give blue solutions which possess identical absorption spectra at given dilutions, and have densities less than the density of pure ammonia. Although the alkaline earth metals yield ammonates, their solutions of the alkali metals. It is no...

As with many drugs in recreational use, there are feds and fashion in inhalants-substances containing volatile chemicals that have psychoactive (and other) effects when inhaled. In the 1960s, the in substance in this category was model airplane glue. More recently a variety of other substances have been sniffed in quest a quick "high," including gasoline, furniture polish, insecticide, transmissin fluid, paint thinners, and more. All are highly toxic and can cause damage to vital organs such as lungs, kidney, liver and brain, and death. Nitrous Oxide Recreational use of nitrous oxide, discovered in 1773 and first used in dentistry in the 1849s, actually predates its medical use. Still employed as an anesthetic (it is also the propellant in whipped cream dispensers), among the least toxic inhalants. It is toxic, nevertheless, and death can follow if it is inhaled with insufficient oxygen. What happens if a person takes nitrous oxide over a long period? Repeated, long-term...

One of the most water-like and certainly one of the most comprehensively studied, of the non-aqueous solvents is liquid ammonia. Early interest in reactions in this medium has been continued until the literature has become extremely voluminous and complex. References already cited shuld be supplemented by the excellent yearly review compiled for the period 1933-1940 under the general guidance of Watt. Solubility in Liquid Ammonia Inasmuch as the solubilities of materials in liquid ammonia are often markedly different from the corresponding solubilities in water and inasmuch as the reaction solute undergo are often functions of their solubilities, a general summary of solubilities is desirable. Perhaps the outstanding difference between ammonia and water is the ability of ammonia to dissolve, without chemical reaction, five metals which are strongly reducing in character. Thus the alkali metals dissolve readily to yield characteristic blue solution from which the free metals can be ...

Protein Classification according to Solubilities Albumin are characterized by being soluble in water and being coagulated on heating. Example are egg albumin, serum albumin, lactalbumin (from milk), and leucosin (from wheat). Globumins are insoluble in water, coagulated by heating, soluble in dilute salt solutions and precipitated when the salt often used. Examples are myosinogen (from muscle), edestin (from hemp seed), ovoglobulin (from egg yolk), serum globulin, amandin (from almonds), legumin (from peas), and excelsin (from Brazil nuts). Glutelins are insoluble in neutral solvents but soluble in dilute acids and alkalies. Example are glutenin (from wheat) and oryzenin (from corn). Alcohol Soluble Proteins (prolamins or gliadins) are soluble in 70 to 80 percent alcohol. Example are gliadin (from wheat), hordain (from barley), and zein (from corn). Fibrous Proteins Histones are soluble in water and insoluble in dilute ammonia. Solutions of other proteins precipitate histones. Th...

Classification of Protein According to Gross Structure A. Fibrous Proteins. These are largely insoluble in ordinary aqueous media (salt solutions, acid, etc.). Their molecular weight is high, though this has not been definitely determined. They consist of fibers made up of long linear molecules arranged (roughly) parallel to the fiber axis. They are amorphous (that is noncrystalline) and are capable of being stretched and then released t contact again. Their function is largely one of structure or support. Years ago they were given such names an albunimoids and sclerins. Example of individual members are collagen (from cartillage); myosin (muscle); keratin (hair); fibrin (clot of blood). These proteins are difficult to purity. B. Globular Proteins. These are soluble in aqueous media (salt solutions, acids, bases, or aqueous alcohol). They have been crystallized and have definite molecular weight. They are characterized by their ability to become denatured, which is a molecular diso...