Chemical Process

From soda we can generate many compounds, beside sodium carbonate , sodium sulfite and sodium hydrosulfite , sodium sulfide , sodium thiosulfate and also sodium hydroxide. Sodium have industrial uses that required millions of tons annually. Perhaps the most important of these compounds is sodium chloride (NaCl), from which million of metric tons of sodium hydroxide are made annually. Sodium hydroxide also called caustic soda, is essential to the production of soap , detergent, cleaning compounds, dyes, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. It is also necessary in the manufacture of rayon , cellophane, phenol, naphtol, recorcinol, and oxalic acid. Such industrial process as boiler water softening, food processing, engraving, printing, pulp and paper production, petroleum refining, metallurgy and house hold bleaching agent that preparation is depend on it. Sodium hydroxide can be form from reaction of sodium with water, but as industrial process this substance usually produce from electro

Physical Chemistry deals with the structure of matter and the energy changes that occur during physical and chemical changes of matter. This field provides a theoretical basis for the chemical observations of the other subdivision of other subdivisions. Analytical chemistry is concerned with the identification of chemical substances, the determination of the amounts of substances present in a mixture, and the separation of mixture onto their individual components. Special subdivisions of chemistry are now recognized the account for knowledge at the interface of chemistry and other physical sciences. For example, recent research has involved the chemical origin of life, reactions between simple molecules at low pressures to form such complex organic molecules as proteins found in living organisms. Astrochemistry is the interdisciplinary physical science that studies the origin and interaction of the chemical constituents, especially interstellar matter, in the universe, Geochemistr

Chemistry is the physical science that deals with composition, structure and properties of substance and also the transformation that these substance that undergoes. Because the study of chemistry encompasses the entire material universe, it is central to the understanding of other science. Basic chemistry involve in all aspect on live, the incident in around you actually is the basic chemistry process such as the changes of compost from fresh there is any chemical reaction involved there even the process itself is help by microorganism. A basic chemistry theory has been formulated as the result of centuries of observation and measurement of the various elements and compounds. According to this theory, matter is composed of minute particles called atoms. The more than 100 different kinds of atoms that are known are called chemical elements. Atoms of the same elements or of different elements can combine together to form molecules and compounds. The atom are held together by forces,

Sulfur or sulphur is a naturally occurring, yellow, water insoluble solid element. Its chemical symbol is S , its atomic number is 16 and its atomic weight is 32.064 sulfur is nonmetal and a member of the oxygen family of elements, which constitutes Group VIA of the periodic table. The discovery of sulfur predates recorded history, and the element has been used since ancient times. The early medical books of Dioscorides of Greece and Pliny the Elder mention sulfur, and fumes from burning sulfur were used in religious ceremonies and for fumigation. Alchemists recognized sulfur as a mineral substance that can be melted and burned. It was first classified as an element by Antonie Lavoisier in 1777. Sulfur Occurrence On earth, sulfur is widely distributed in its elemental state as a secondary mineral or as a volcanic deposit, as well as in combination with a number of metals. Large sedimentary deposits of the almost pure element, mainly of Tertiary age, are found in the coastal r

Chemical Hazard Symbol is regulate by government and International standard to indicate the content of any container that transport that material. The regulation of chemical hazard symbol in Indonesia is made by Ministry of Environment and become update if any changes. Some of symbol of chemical hazard is shown on the picture below. Basic Shape, Size, Materials: The length of the lines making the points should be 1/3 of the height of the diamond and the width of the base should be 1/2 the length of the diamond side. Explosives, Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals Flammable Chemicals: There are two kind of these symbol type, Flammable liquid and Flammable Solid. Symbol of Reactive Hazardous Chemicals: Symbol for Toxic Waste: This is symbol that using International standard, every symbol in the plant should follow the regulation of the above size and dimension already stated by regulation. There are small symbol and big symbol of each chemical characteristic alre

What is gypsum? Gypsum is usually used for interior design in the house building. Gypsum use to make up the good looking inside the house, because gypsum have smooth surface and look better after grinding with sand paper and then paint with white color. Other paint color may be applied but I still don't see other kind color applied for gypsum. Chemically Gypsum have formula CaSO4, from this formula we can see that gypsum is produced from the reaction of Ca substance with SO4 substance like sulfuric acid. By apply energy on the reaction between Calk and Sulfuric acid can produce Gypsum at the end of the reaction. The real production process my more complicated because involve many parameters on process going. On industry Gypsum can be produced especially to produce Gypsum, but in other plant Gypsum can be a side product like in Power Plant, as Gypsum is the side product on the chimney on purpose of environmental protection. The emission from power plant that much emit SO2 gas c

One of the most water-like and certainly one of the most comprehensively studied, of the non-aqueous solvents is liquid ammonia. Early interest in reactions in this medium has been continued until the literature has become extremely voluminous and complex. References already cited shuld be supplemented by the excellent yearly review compiled for the period 1933-1940 under the general guidance of Watt. Solubility in Liquid Ammonia Inasmuch as the solubilities of materials in liquid ammonia are often markedly different from the corresponding solubilities in water and inasmuch as the reaction solute undergo are often functions of their solubilities, a general summary of solubilities is desirable. Perhaps the outstanding difference between ammonia and water is the ability of ammonia to dissolve, without chemical reaction, five metals which are strongly reducing in character. Thus the alkali metals dissolve readily to yield characteristic blue solution from which the free metals can be

Protein Classification according to Solubilities Albumin are characterized by being soluble in water and being coagulated on heating. Example are egg albumin, serum albumin, lactalbumin (from milk), and leucosin (from wheat). Globumins are insoluble in water, coagulated by heating, soluble in dilute salt solutions and precipitated when the salt often used. Examples are myosinogen (from muscle), edestin (from hemp seed), ovoglobulin (from egg yolk), serum globulin, amandin (from almonds), legumin (from peas), and excelsin (from Brazil nuts). Glutelins are insoluble in neutral solvents but soluble in dilute acids and alkalies. Example are glutenin (from wheat) and oryzenin (from corn). Alcohol Soluble Proteins (prolamins or gliadins) are soluble in 70 to 80 percent alcohol. Example are gliadin (from wheat), hordain (from barley), and zein (from corn). Fibrous Proteins Histones are soluble in water and insoluble in dilute ammonia. Solutions of other proteins precipitate histones. Th

Classification of Protein According to Gross Structure A. Fibrous Proteins. These are largely insoluble in ordinary aqueous media (salt solutions, acid, etc.). Their molecular weight is high, though this has not been definitely determined. They consist of fibers made up of long linear molecules arranged (roughly) parallel to the fiber axis. They are amorphous (that is noncrystalline) and are capable of being stretched and then released t contact again. Their function is largely one of structure or support. Years ago they were given such names an albunimoids and sclerins. Example of individual members are collagen (from cartillage); myosin (muscle); keratin (hair); fibrin (clot of blood). These proteins are difficult to purity. B. Globular Proteins. These are soluble in aqueous media (salt solutions, acids, bases, or aqueous alcohol). They have been crystallized and have definite molecular weight. They are characterized by their ability to become denatured, which is a molecular diso

Chemical Nature of the Protein Using the traditional methods of the organic chemist, it can be shown that protein yield a mixture of amino acids when hydrolyzed by acid, alkali or enzymes. Most protein yield some 19 different amino acids. They are all alpha amino acids, and with the exception of glycine, (which contains no asymetric atom), they all belong to the L-series with reference to the alpha-carbon atom. R-C(alpha)H-COOH-NH3 The structure of typical amono acid is given above, R represent some group which determine the particular kind of amino acid in question. In the original protein molecule these amino acids are joined together by bonds between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another, with the splitting off of water. The bond between two amino acides, -CO-NH- is called the peptide bond. When just two amino acids are involved, the resulting compound is called a dipeptide. The availability of an amino and a corboxyl group in the dipeptide m

Protein In the Cell Some 15 percent by weight of the total body is made up of protein. The membrane of animal cells represents an insoluble protein complex; the protoplasm contains soluble proteins and cytoplasmic bodies, which are to a large extent, insoluble proteins such as are found associated with mitochondria and microsomes; though microsomes also contain soluble proteins. Insoluble and soluble proteins are found in the nucleus. Protein are found in all living cells, in single celled algae and bacteria and in multicelled man, and in substances known as VIRUSES, which may well represent the borderline between the living and the lifeless. These proteins have many functions; they include maintaining osmotic integrity; storage for some particular element; enzymes, to catalyze, biochemical reactions, hormones to regulate metabolic processes (like insulin); carriage of molecular oxygen (like hemoglobin); the transportation of lipida (like lipoproteins). The complexity of the pro

Stereochemistry is the study of the spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules and the effect thereof on the bulk properties and reactions of chemical compounds. In chemistry, Stereochemical principles have become useful tools for determining the structures and for revealing the details of chemical and biochemical reaction pathways. Stereochemistry is a special concern in the areas of biochemistry, biophysics, and drug development as well. On a molecular level, nearly all biochemical processes involve the spatial recognition of one molecule by another, and such recognition serves as the means by which energy structures are built. As early as 1823, Friedrich Wohler and Jusfus Liebig recognized that two chemical compounds might have the same elemental composition yet differ in the order in which the atoms were linked together. It was widely believed, until almost the end of the 1800s, that these criteria alone were enough to define completely a chemical compound. In 1848, however, the F

Phosphorus is a nonmetallic chemical element that is a member of Group VA in the periodic table. The chemical symbol for phosphorus is P , its atomic number is 15, and its atomic weight is 30.975. Phosphorus was first prepared by German alchemist Hennig Brandt in 1669, in the course of his search for the philosopher's stone he obtained from a residue of evaporated urine a white solid that glowed in the dark and ignited spontaneously in air. The name phosporus (from the Greek for "light bringing"), which at that time was used for any substance that glows of itself, was eventually appropriated to this element. Phosphorus does not occur in elemental form in nature; it is found most commonly in apatite minerals such as fluorapatite. There are white phosphorus, black phosphorus and red phosphorus. Red phosphorus is considered as mixture of black phosphorus and white phosphorus. See the picture of each kind of phosphorus: White phosphorus Red phosphorus Black P

Arsenic is a metallic chemical element in Group VA of the periodic table. Its symbol is As, its atomic number is 33, and its atomic weight is 74.9216. The Earth's crust contains only about 5.5 parts arsenic per million, but it occurs in many minerals. Arsenic exist in three allotropic modifications, the yellow (alpha) and the black (betha) and metallic, or gray (gamma). Normally arsenic is found in its metallic form, which is the most stable and its normal pressure does not melt but sublimes at about 615 o C. It forms alloy with other metalls. The alpha and betha modifications have no metallic properties. Arsenic is fairly reactive. Above 400 o C it burns with a bluish flame, forming arsenic trioxide, As2O3. This compound is know as white arsenic and is used as a rat poison. The toxic quality of arsenic has been known since ancient times. In the human body it accumulates in the nails and the hair, where it can be detected, even in the bodies of persons long dead, by the atomic

For field engineer that usually measure a pH of the liquid on the environment that they are founded, they usually use portable pH meter in order can easily to check the pH condition of the liquid flow. The Model Personal pH/ORP Meter is a highly accurate, portable pH meter for laboratory and field application. With its self-diagnostic function, the PH meter provides precise measurement of pH and ORP (oxidation-reduction potential). Measurement results can be stored and stored data can be checked on the meter display any time. The PHmeter is of waterproof construction so that it can safely be used outdoors on a rainy day, and can also withstand being accidentally dropped into water. Some Feature should be own by pH meter equipment: Water resistant case Simple calibration Automatic calibration based on preprogrammed data of standard solutions or manual calibration can be done through simple key operations. Calendar and clock function Internal clock functions allow “one-touch

Numerical characteristic of hydrogen are summarized on the below table. The values on the latter table are for the ordinary isotropic mizture of hydrogen containing about one part of deuterium in 5000 and the ordinary ortho para mixture. Numerical Constant of Hydrogen Property Numerical Value Critical Temperature, o K 32 Critical pressure, atm 20 Density of gas, gram/liter at 0 o C, 1 atm 0 Density of liquid, gram/ml 0.071 Solubility in H 2 O, ml/100 grams as 25 o C 1.5 Chemically, hydrogen combines with most, of the non metallic elements and with many of the metals to produce compounds called hydrides. Hydrogen serves as a reducing agent toward many metal oxides oxides and toward double and triple bounds involving carbon. Characteristic reactions of hydrogen, in general reaction are indicative of the tendency of hydrogen to bonds with highly electropositive elements are completely ionic those with higly electromagnetive posses appreciable partial ionic character.

The important  bond chemicals linkage  which hold together the components of crystalline solids and their general characteristics may be summarized as follows: 1. Ionic Linkages or ionic bond In which the crystals are made up of regular geometrical arrangements of positive and negative ions. Such solids tend to possess high melting and boiling points, are hard and difficult to deform, and tend to be soluble in polar solvents. When dissolved in such solvents as fused, they are excellent conductors. Crystals characterized by such linkages are called ionic crystals. The salts are examples. 2. Covalent Linkages In which the crystals are made up of molecules produced by the sharing of electrons, usually to pairs, between atoms of the elements involved. Such solids posses properties essentially opposite from those outlined for ionic crystals, although the partial ionic characters of many covalent bonds effect corresponding modifications. The following types of covalent crystalline soli

The formula or Pentacrythritol is C(CH 2 OH) 4 , with molecular weight 136.14. Pentacrythritol is a white or light yellow with a little sweetness and soluble in water and ethanol, insoluble in benzene, ethyl ether and other mineral ether. Pentacrythritol have boiling point 276 o C and melted in 262  o C, have density of 1.35 g/cm3 and have refractive index 1.54 – 1.56. Pentacrythritol is mainly used in the production of alkyd resin and as material of paint industry, besides as explosive material, floor paint and air lubricant oil. To handling this material should be placed in a dry clean and ventilated place, should avoid heating, damp and direct contacting to sunshine. How to produce this material still being patented by Harry Jackson, William M. Kraft et al, and other scientist. Some journal just describe the main reaction of the manufacturing of this substances. The invention relates to a process for resolving into its component materials the waste liquor resultant from the manu

Iodine has atomic number 53 with a symbol I, is a solid nonmetallic element of the Halogen family. Group VIIA in the periodic table, a group that includes Flourine, Chlorine, and Bromine. At room temperature iodine is a lustrous, blue black, crystalline solid of atomic weight 126.9045. Iodine is the least water soluble halogen, but it dissolves readily in alcohol, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and benzene. Iodine is poisonous, but as a trace element it is essential to plant and animal growth. In higher mammals it is concentrated in the Thyroid gland and is involved in the synthesis of thyroxine and other biochemicals that grown metabolic activities. Besides affecting growth, iodine deficiency can also cause goiter, so iodine salts are added to table salts in regions where iodine levels are low. History Iodine was first observed in 1811 by a French saltpeter manufacture, Bernard Desormes and Nicholas Clement confirmed its nature and announced the discovery of the new element,

The Milk Way is the giant galaxy system that contains of our solar system. Pluto the farthest planet from sun, only stone and very cold air, the surface temperature reach to – 238oC, because of this very cold temperature the surface become a block of ice, a dead ice. The Milky Way Pluto Neptune, one another frozen planet with the surface temperature reach of -218oC, the atmosphere contain helium, hydrogen and methane are poisonous for life being. High methane contain make this atmosphere have blue color. The environment with great storm with speed of 2000 km/hour. Neptune Uranus the dead planet, the mostly planet composed from stone and ice. Need 84 years of Earth for Uranus to circle the sun, atmosphere with hydrogen, helium and methane very poisonous for live. Uranus Saturn’s is the second biggest planet of the sun, with the ring circle them, this ring contain of gas, stone and ice, the whole planet composed by gas, 75% hydrogen and 25% helium. The density of this